Data Collection Technique

Data and information gathered from records and documents must be carefully evaluated so as to attest their worth for the purpose of the particular study. Evaluation of historical data and information is often referred to historical criticism and the reliable data yielded by the process are known as historical evidence. Historical evidence has thus been described as that body of validated facts and information which can be accepted as trustworthy. Historical criticism is usually undertaken in two stages: first, the authenticity of the source is appraised; and second, the accuracy or worth of the data is evaluated. These two processes are known as external and internal criticism respectively.

External criticism is concerned with establishing the authenticity or genuineness of data. It authenticates the document (or other source) itself rather than the information it contains. It therefore sets out to uncover frauds, forgeries, hoaxes, inventions or distortions.

After the document authenticity has been established, the next task is to evaluate the accuracy and worth of the data contained therein. This presents a more difficult problem than external criticism does. The credibility of the author of the documents has to be established. A number of factors must be taken into account, that is 1) whether they were trained observers of the events, 2) kinds of their relationships to the events, 3) to what extent they were under pressure, from fear or vanity, to distort or omit facts, 4) what the intents of the authors of the documents were, 5) to what extent they were experts at recording those particular events, 6) they were too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give true picture, 7) how long after the event they recorded their account, and 8) whether they are in agreement with other independent witnesses.

A particular problem that arises from these questions is that of bias. There are three generally recognized sources of bias: those arising from the subject being interviewed, those arising from themselves as researchers and those arising from the subject-researcher interaction (Travers, 1969).

Research Instruments

Sources of data may be classified into two main groups: primary sources, which are the life blood of historical research; and secondary sources, which may be used in the absence of, or to supplement, primary data.

Primary sources of data have been described as those items that are original to the problem under study. Category two includes not only written and oral testimony given by actual participants or witnesses, but also the participants themselves. Whether or not these sources were meant for the intent purpose of passing on information is irrelevant. If a source is, intentionally or unintentionally, capable of transmitting a first-hand account of an event, it is considered a source of primary data.

Secondary sources are those that do not bear a direct physical relationship to the event being studied. This includes third person accounts etc. Best (1970) points out those secondary sources are of limited worth because of the errors that result when information is passed on from one person to another. The importance of using primary sources where possible cannot be stressed enough. The value, too, of secondary sources should not be minimized.

The review of the literature in other forms of educational research is regarded as a preparatory stage to gathering data and serves to acquaint researchers with previous research on the topics they are studying (Travers, 1969). The function of the review of the literature in historical research is different in that it provides the data for research; the researchers’ acceptance or otherwise of their hypotheses will depend on their selection of information from the review and the interpretation they put on it. Borg (1963) has identified other differences: one is that the historical researcher will have to peruse longer documents than the empirical researcher who normally studies articles very much more succinct and precise. And one final point document in education often consists of unpublished material and is therefore less accessible than reports of empirical studies in professional journals

Research: Sampling Methods

It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.

Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.

Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.

Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.

Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.

Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.

Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

Case Studies for Urban Design & Planning of Indonesian Cities : An International Perspective

1. Analysis of Current City Planning : What happened to Indonesian cities?
2. Challenges Ahead for the Cities : Understand the forces that influence/has impact to cities?

3. Recent Issues in City Planning : Learn from cases/practice how to respond to these issues

What happened to Indonesian Cities?

Problems/Constraints

1. Not strong vision/objective

• Narrow view of planning : detached from global issues.
• Loosing the opportunities & potential
• Lack of entrepreneurship & marketing

1. Short term solution, unsustainable practice & non-coherent planning

• Patching up work/’gali lubang tutup lubang’
• Short term view &: Energy (pollution), transportation (congestion), environment (climate change), Social & economic (economic disparity, jobless, social unrest)

1. Weak Process: Lack of Enforcement, Transparency & Democracy

• Good planning, but difficult to implement: Corruption & lack of enforcement
• Good vision, but not for everyone : public participation, transparency
• Good action, but slow process : bureaucracy

Absence of Mass Rapid Transport Strategy Dependence to automobile No vehicle wnership control Pollution, congestion 40% of productive time in Jakarta is spent on the road, Uneven development


What Indonesian Cities can offer ?

Opportunities?

High number of urban population : high consumption/demand ,supply of man power

1. Large area & potential for horizontal expansion
2. 
   
3. Rich cultural and historical background
4. 
   
5. Geographical location & climate
6. 
   
7. Relatively lower cost of economy

Challenges Ahead for the Cities

Understand the forces that influence/has impact to cities?

Globalization :

1. Flexible Accumulation & Movement of asset & investment, Global Restructuring of Financial Market
2. Changes in Production/Distribution-Supply Chain,
3. Emergence of IT, Space and Time Compression
4. Global Community – cross culture influence and global identity/branding

Challenges Ahead for the Cities

Understand the forces that influence/has impact to cities?

Urbanization :

1. more than 50% globally, live in urban
2. pressure on urban poor and environment
3. edge/satellite cities, creating traffic & urban expansion

Global Warming & Energy Deficiency :

1. Continuous use and dependence to non-renewable energy
2. Rising price of oil worldwide & energy crisis
3. Pollution and global heating, rise of sea level

Decentralization :

1. More power/authority/flexibility to regulate and plan the cities
2. But, with significant decrease of state/central government budget
3. Readiness of local government 

Recent Issues in City Planning

Learn from cases/practice how to respond to these issues

Recent Issues in City Planning :

1. Strategic Positioning of Cities
2. Convergence & Integration of Distribution & Transportation Industry
3. Sustainable & Environmentally Responsive Development
4. Transit Oriented Development
5. City’s Character & Sense of Place

1. Recent Issues in City Planning

1. Strategic positioning of Cities
2. Clearer vision and long term objective
3. Cities’ respond and positioning to globalization & decentralization: capture investment & flow of capital
4. Cities striving to be ‘Sustainable Global Cities’
5. Various scale consideration: from local to district, city, regions and beyond

2. Convergence and Integration of Transportation & Distribution Industry

1. Capturing the emerging trends of global transportation & distribution industry
2. Integration of modes of transport, infrastructure and transportation facilities
3. City’s/Country’s respond to the trend in strategic spatial & infrastructure planning.

3. Sustainable & Environmentally Responsive Development

1. Environmental assessment & standard reinforcement : Use of Technology & GIS
2. ‘Green Development’ Planning Standard
3. Use of alternative energy: renewable non pollutant
4. Recycle and regeneration 

4. Transit Oriented Development

1. Mass rapid transportation as relief for urban congestion and main accessibility mode for city
2. Edge cities or Satellite cities bases on mass transportation corridor.
3. Land Use Mix that Reduces Auto Travel and Facilitates Transit
4. Compact development that is walkable and allow other mode of transport, i.e. bicycle 

5. City’s Character and Sense of Place

1. Finding character & identity in the past: preservation & conservation, as strategy to tourism & district revitalization
2. Return the public realm to the people: transform infrastructure nightmare into green & public urban space
3. Create city’s architectural landmark as identity. As part of tourism strategy
4. Mixed use district allowing live-work and play.

CONCLUSION

1. City need to recognize it’s weaknesses & strengths
2. City need to put the planning into the global perspective and proactively respond to the issues/challenge
3. City respond to investment opportunities: Strong Visions & Positioning of city, Capitalize on Convergence & Integration of Distribution & Transportation Industry
4. City striving to be Sustainable Global City:
5. Adopt & implement Sustainable & Environmentally Responsive Development
6. Planning & Development oriented to Mass Transit System
7. Build Character & Sense of Place & Vibrancy to City

spatial

approach to spatial, environmental, and territorial in his work is a unified whole.so the phenomenon, symptoms, and problems are reviewed for distributing office, linkages between the various units of ecosystems in space. application of geographic approach to symptoms and problems can produce a variety of alternatives to solving the problem

DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Movement (with or without limit of space)

The concept of movement with the boundary of space > concerning territorial and city, including land use patterns, travel patterns (of people and goods), and how its relevance to the location / country.

The concept of movement without limits of space > regarding the reasons why people travel, when travel is at and with what is used transport

movement (with or without limit of space)

Why do people do the trip?

economic necessity to work, get the goods / services

Social, Cultural

Education

Recreation and entertainment

Basic needs of households

Returning home +  90% movement from home base (home based)

Land Use Patterns

Centre activities / city land values higher, people who live in the center city incomenya higher, the intensity of movement, high accessibility

But people are more live in the suburbs and working downtown.

This concept is very fundamental to transportation experts.

Travel Patterns People & Goods

Regions that have high population of general level of employment (labor demand) is lower and vice versa. Travel patterns tend to be high at the time of departure and return.

The fact showed that 80% of travel items are distributed to the area of housing, the rest of the trip to the area of industry, trade

Location Theory

Simple theory by placing the role of transportation costs on industrial location or the location of the market.

Weber's theory by placing the role of transport costs between the location of industrial / production and market locations, taking into account the location of more than one raw material.

Concept diagram illustrates isotim whole point of having the same relative cost.

Losch theory indicates the amount of demand increases while the smallest distance, and vice versa

The best location is based on the number of the smallest cost

What Is Planning or Urban and Regional Planning?

Planning or Urban and Regional Planning is a study to learn about how to plan a region and city. In planning a city turns out a lot of which must be taken into consideration by planners such as the economic, social, culture of a region and others.

Results of Urban and Regional Planning course there are many different levels, namely:

1. National Spatial Plan.

2. Provincial Spatial Plan.

3. Spatial Planning and Regional Municipality. (Spatial planning)

4. Detailed Spatial Plan (RDTR).

To be more details, please read on Spatial Law's most recent City:

Law No.26 of 2007

Next, if we want to be a scholar or expert in the field of Built Environment will need to have competence.

General competence to be possessed by graduates in the field of Built Environment is:

1. Understanding the meaning of Urban and Regional Planning

2. Understanding that the future can be oriented utopian and visionary, but also understand that the plan is a product that must be implemented

3. Capable of producing product-oriented prescriptive, ie the ability to make interventions to improve welfare in the future

4. Holds the values of humanity (humanity), defend the public interest (public interest), and to be fair (justice) and equivalent (equity) in the practice of science for the common good.

According Conyer, 1984, the definition of planning is the continuous process of decision-making or choice about how to utilize existing resources as much as possible in order to achieve certain goals in the future.

From these definitions it is in the planning of course there are elements which are:

1. Drafting means choosing

2. Planning as a tool for allocating resources

3. Planning as a means to an end

4. Planning is future oriented.

In this case, city planners are not the people who design a city, but the truth is only to provide a plan based on the principle of "supply and demand" which will be used to make the city more advanced in all fields.

Hopefully with more and more people are interested to cultivate this field, it is not likely to improve the quality of Urban Planning in Indonesia today. Hopefully.