Data Collection Technique

Data and information gathered from records and documents must be carefully evaluated so as to attest their worth for the purpose of the particular study. Evaluation of historical data and information is often referred to historical criticism and the reliable data yielded by the process are known as historical evidence. Historical evidence has thus been described as that body of validated facts and information which can be accepted as trustworthy. Historical criticism is usually undertaken in two stages: first, the authenticity of the source is appraised; and second, the accuracy or worth of the data is evaluated. These two processes are known as external and internal criticism respectively.

External criticism is concerned with establishing the authenticity or genuineness of data. It authenticates the document (or other source) itself rather than the information it contains. It therefore sets out to uncover frauds, forgeries, hoaxes, inventions or distortions.

After the document authenticity has been established, the next task is to evaluate the accuracy and worth of the data contained therein. This presents a more difficult problem than external criticism does. The credibility of the author of the documents has to be established. A number of factors must be taken into account, that is 1) whether they were trained observers of the events, 2) kinds of their relationships to the events, 3) to what extent they were under pressure, from fear or vanity, to distort or omit facts, 4) what the intents of the authors of the documents were, 5) to what extent they were experts at recording those particular events, 6) they were too antagonistic or too sympathetic to give true picture, 7) how long after the event they recorded their account, and 8) whether they are in agreement with other independent witnesses.

A particular problem that arises from these questions is that of bias. There are three generally recognized sources of bias: those arising from the subject being interviewed, those arising from themselves as researchers and those arising from the subject-researcher interaction (Travers, 1969).

Research Instruments

Sources of data may be classified into two main groups: primary sources, which are the life blood of historical research; and secondary sources, which may be used in the absence of, or to supplement, primary data.

Primary sources of data have been described as those items that are original to the problem under study. Category two includes not only written and oral testimony given by actual participants or witnesses, but also the participants themselves. Whether or not these sources were meant for the intent purpose of passing on information is irrelevant. If a source is, intentionally or unintentionally, capable of transmitting a first-hand account of an event, it is considered a source of primary data.

Secondary sources are those that do not bear a direct physical relationship to the event being studied. This includes third person accounts etc. Best (1970) points out those secondary sources are of limited worth because of the errors that result when information is passed on from one person to another. The importance of using primary sources where possible cannot be stressed enough. The value, too, of secondary sources should not be minimized.

The review of the literature in other forms of educational research is regarded as a preparatory stage to gathering data and serves to acquaint researchers with previous research on the topics they are studying (Travers, 1969). The function of the review of the literature in historical research is different in that it provides the data for research; the researchers’ acceptance or otherwise of their hypotheses will depend on their selection of information from the review and the interpretation they put on it. Borg (1963) has identified other differences: one is that the historical researcher will have to peruse longer documents than the empirical researcher who normally studies articles very much more succinct and precise. And one final point document in education often consists of unpublished material and is therefore less accessible than reports of empirical studies in professional journals

Research: Sampling Methods

It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with the objectives of the study.Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on every member of the population.

Usually, the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members. A small, but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.

Sampling methods are classified as either probability or nonprobability. In probability samples, each member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In nonprobability sampling, members are selected from the population in some nonrandom manner. These include convenience sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus the sampling error. In nonprobability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the population remains unknown.

Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes biased.

Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called an Nth name selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number of records from a computer file.

Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.

Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they are convenient. This nonprobability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.

Judgment sampling is a common nonprobability method. The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly representative of the entire population.

Quota sampling is the nonprobability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population. Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.

Snowball sampling is a special nonprobability method used when the desired sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the population.

Case Studies for Urban Design & Planning of Indonesian Cities : An International Perspective

1. Analysis of Current City Planning : What happened to Indonesian cities?
2. Challenges Ahead for the Cities : Understand the forces that influence/has impact to cities?

3. Recent Issues in City Planning : Learn from cases/practice how to respond to these issues

What happened to Indonesian Cities?

Problems/Constraints

1. Not strong vision/objective

• Narrow view of planning : detached from global issues.
• Loosing the opportunities & potential
• Lack of entrepreneurship & marketing

1. Short term solution, unsustainable practice & non-coherent planning

• Patching up work/’gali lubang tutup lubang’
• Short term view &: Energy (pollution), transportation (congestion), environment (climate change), Social & economic (economic disparity, jobless, social unrest)

1. Weak Process: Lack of Enforcement, Transparency & Democracy

• Good planning, but difficult to implement: Corruption & lack of enforcement
• Good vision, but not for everyone : public participation, transparency
• Good action, but slow process : bureaucracy

Absence of Mass Rapid Transport Strategy Dependence to automobile No vehicle wnership control Pollution, congestion 40% of productive time in Jakarta is spent on the road, Uneven development


What Indonesian Cities can offer ?

Opportunities?

High number of urban population : high consumption/demand ,supply of man power

1. Large area & potential for horizontal expansion
2. 
   
3. Rich cultural and historical background
4. 
   
5. Geographical location & climate
6. 
   
7. Relatively lower cost of economy

Challenges Ahead for the Cities

Understand the forces that influence/has impact to cities?

Globalization :

1. Flexible Accumulation & Movement of asset & investment, Global Restructuring of Financial Market
2. Changes in Production/Distribution-Supply Chain,
3. Emergence of IT, Space and Time Compression
4. Global Community – cross culture influence and global identity/branding

Challenges Ahead for the Cities

Understand the forces that influence/has impact to cities?

Urbanization :

1. more than 50% globally, live in urban
2. pressure on urban poor and environment
3. edge/satellite cities, creating traffic & urban expansion

Global Warming & Energy Deficiency :

1. Continuous use and dependence to non-renewable energy
2. Rising price of oil worldwide & energy crisis
3. Pollution and global heating, rise of sea level

Decentralization :

1. More power/authority/flexibility to regulate and plan the cities
2. But, with significant decrease of state/central government budget
3. Readiness of local government 

Recent Issues in City Planning

Learn from cases/practice how to respond to these issues

Recent Issues in City Planning :

1. Strategic Positioning of Cities
2. Convergence & Integration of Distribution & Transportation Industry
3. Sustainable & Environmentally Responsive Development
4. Transit Oriented Development
5. City’s Character & Sense of Place

1. Recent Issues in City Planning

1. Strategic positioning of Cities
2. Clearer vision and long term objective
3. Cities’ respond and positioning to globalization & decentralization: capture investment & flow of capital
4. Cities striving to be ‘Sustainable Global Cities’
5. Various scale consideration: from local to district, city, regions and beyond

2. Convergence and Integration of Transportation & Distribution Industry

1. Capturing the emerging trends of global transportation & distribution industry
2. Integration of modes of transport, infrastructure and transportation facilities
3. City’s/Country’s respond to the trend in strategic spatial & infrastructure planning.

3. Sustainable & Environmentally Responsive Development

1. Environmental assessment & standard reinforcement : Use of Technology & GIS
2. ‘Green Development’ Planning Standard
3. Use of alternative energy: renewable non pollutant
4. Recycle and regeneration 

4. Transit Oriented Development

1. Mass rapid transportation as relief for urban congestion and main accessibility mode for city
2. Edge cities or Satellite cities bases on mass transportation corridor.
3. Land Use Mix that Reduces Auto Travel and Facilitates Transit
4. Compact development that is walkable and allow other mode of transport, i.e. bicycle 

5. City’s Character and Sense of Place

1. Finding character & identity in the past: preservation & conservation, as strategy to tourism & district revitalization
2. Return the public realm to the people: transform infrastructure nightmare into green & public urban space
3. Create city’s architectural landmark as identity. As part of tourism strategy
4. Mixed use district allowing live-work and play.

CONCLUSION

1. City need to recognize it’s weaknesses & strengths
2. City need to put the planning into the global perspective and proactively respond to the issues/challenge
3. City respond to investment opportunities: Strong Visions & Positioning of city, Capitalize on Convergence & Integration of Distribution & Transportation Industry
4. City striving to be Sustainable Global City:
5. Adopt & implement Sustainable & Environmentally Responsive Development
6. Planning & Development oriented to Mass Transit System
7. Build Character & Sense of Place & Vibrancy to City

spatial

approach to spatial, environmental, and territorial in his work is a unified whole.so the phenomenon, symptoms, and problems are reviewed for distributing office, linkages between the various units of ecosystems in space. application of geographic approach to symptoms and problems can produce a variety of alternatives to solving the problem

DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Movement (with or without limit of space)

The concept of movement with the boundary of space > concerning territorial and city, including land use patterns, travel patterns (of people and goods), and how its relevance to the location / country.

The concept of movement without limits of space > regarding the reasons why people travel, when travel is at and with what is used transport

movement (with or without limit of space)

Why do people do the trip?

economic necessity to work, get the goods / services

Social, Cultural

Education

Recreation and entertainment

Basic needs of households

Returning home +  90% movement from home base (home based)

Land Use Patterns

Centre activities / city land values higher, people who live in the center city incomenya higher, the intensity of movement, high accessibility

But people are more live in the suburbs and working downtown.

This concept is very fundamental to transportation experts.

Travel Patterns People & Goods

Regions that have high population of general level of employment (labor demand) is lower and vice versa. Travel patterns tend to be high at the time of departure and return.

The fact showed that 80% of travel items are distributed to the area of housing, the rest of the trip to the area of industry, trade

Location Theory

Simple theory by placing the role of transportation costs on industrial location or the location of the market.

Weber's theory by placing the role of transport costs between the location of industrial / production and market locations, taking into account the location of more than one raw material.

Concept diagram illustrates isotim whole point of having the same relative cost.

Losch theory indicates the amount of demand increases while the smallest distance, and vice versa

The best location is based on the number of the smallest cost

What Is Planning or Urban and Regional Planning?

Planning or Urban and Regional Planning is a study to learn about how to plan a region and city. In planning a city turns out a lot of which must be taken into consideration by planners such as the economic, social, culture of a region and others.

Results of Urban and Regional Planning course there are many different levels, namely:

1. National Spatial Plan.

2. Provincial Spatial Plan.

3. Spatial Planning and Regional Municipality. (Spatial planning)

4. Detailed Spatial Plan (RDTR).

To be more details, please read on Spatial Law's most recent City:

Law No.26 of 2007

Next, if we want to be a scholar or expert in the field of Built Environment will need to have competence.

General competence to be possessed by graduates in the field of Built Environment is:

1. Understanding the meaning of Urban and Regional Planning

2. Understanding that the future can be oriented utopian and visionary, but also understand that the plan is a product that must be implemented

3. Capable of producing product-oriented prescriptive, ie the ability to make interventions to improve welfare in the future

4. Holds the values of humanity (humanity), defend the public interest (public interest), and to be fair (justice) and equivalent (equity) in the practice of science for the common good.

According Conyer, 1984, the definition of planning is the continuous process of decision-making or choice about how to utilize existing resources as much as possible in order to achieve certain goals in the future.

From these definitions it is in the planning of course there are elements which are:

1. Drafting means choosing

2. Planning as a tool for allocating resources

3. Planning as a means to an end

4. Planning is future oriented.

In this case, city planners are not the people who design a city, but the truth is only to provide a plan based on the principle of "supply and demand" which will be used to make the city more advanced in all fields.

Hopefully with more and more people are interested to cultivate this field, it is not likely to improve the quality of Urban Planning in Indonesia today. Hopefully.

What is Soil Carbon Sequestration?

Carbon sequestration occurs within – is a part of – the carbon cycle. The IPCC says “carbon cycle” is “the term used to describe the exchange of carbon (in various forms, e.g., as carbon dioxide) between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial biosphere and geological deposits,” in short the exchanges between reservoirs.

More specifically as to soils, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) answers the question, “What is soil carbon sequestration?”

"Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide can be lowered either by reducing emissions or by taking carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere and storing in terrestrial, oceanic, or freshwater aquatic ecosystems. A sink is defined as aprocess or an activity that removes greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. The long-term conversion of grassland and forestland to cropland (and grazing lands) has resulted in historic losses of soil carbon worldwide but there is a major potential for increasing soil carbon through restoration of degraded soils and widespread adoption of soil conservation practices."

FAO is concerned with the effect of agriculture on climate change, the impact of climate change on agriculture and with the role that agriculture can play in mitigating climate change. Historically, land-use conversion and soil cultivation have been an important source of greenhouse gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere. It is estimated that they are responsible for about one-third of GHG emissions.

However, improved agricultural practices can help mitigate climate change by reducing emissions from agriculture and other sources and by storing carbon in plant biomass and soils. The work of FAO aims to identify, develop and promote cultural practices that reduce agricultural emissions and sequester carbon while helping to improve the livelihoods of farmers, especially in developing countries, through increased production and additional incomes from carbon credits under the mechanisms that have emerged since the Kyoto Protocol.

The main purpose of this Soil Carbon Sequestration website section is to provide information on the activities of the Land Tenure and Management Unit of FAO on soil carbon sequestration within the framework of its activities on the integrated planning and management of land resources for sustainable rural development.

The objective is to reverse land degradation due to deforestation and inadequate land use/management in the tropics and sub-tropics through the promotion of improved land use systems and land management practices which provide win-win effects in terms of economic gains and environmental benefits, greater agro-biodiversity, improved conservation and environmental management and increased carbon sequestration.

The development of agriculture during past centuries and particularly in last decades has entailed depletion of substantive soil carbon stocks created through long-term evolution. Agricultural soils are among the planet's largest reservoirs of carbon and hold potential for expanded carbon sequestration (CS), and thus provide a prospective way of mitigating the increasing atmospheric concentration of CO2. It is estimated that soils can sequester around 20 Pg C in 25 years, more than 10 % of the anthropogenic emissions.

At the same time, this process provides other important benefits for soil, crop and environment quality, prevention of erosion and desertification and for the enhancement of bio-diversity. The UN Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD) is concerned that extensive areas of formerly productive land, in the arid and semi arid regions in particular, have been rendered unsuitable for crop production due to ongoing land degradation.

Land degradation does not only reduce crop yields but often reduces the carbon content of agro-ecosystems, which is of concern to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC). The UN Convention on Biodiversity (UNCBD) is concerned that biodiversity and conditions conducive for biodiversity are being reduced in agro-ecosystems due to the very same processes. It is therefore important to identify what important synergies can be found between these three UN conventions; UNFCC, UNCCD and UNCBD.

Carbon sequestration activities have been supported through the CDM (Clean Development Mechanism) under the Kyoto protocol with a focus on afforestation and reforestation, seen as being the most effective and readily measurable means to sequester carbon as biomass both above and below ground. In the post, Kyoto negotiations efforts are being made to give due attention to the huge carbon sequestration potentials in rangelands (Neily, Bunning, Wikes 2009) and to soil carbon sequestration (paper by al 2009).

Soil biodiversity reflects the variability among living organisms including a myriad of organisms not visible with the naked eye, such as micro-organisms (e.g. bacteria, fungi, protozoa and nematodes) and meso-fauna (e.g. acari and springtails), as well as the more familiar macro-fauna (e.g. earthworms and termites). Plant roots can also be considered as soil organisms in view of their symbiotic relationships and interactions with other soil components.

These diverse organisms interact with one another and with the various plants and animals in the ecosystem forming a complex web of biological activity. Soil organisms contribute a wide range of essential services to the sustainable function of all ecosystems. They act as the primary driving agents of nutrient cycling, regulating the dynamics of soil organic matter, soil carbon sequestration and greenhouse gas emission, modifying soil physical structure and water regimes, enhancing the amount and efficiency of nutrient acquisition by the vegetation and enhancing plant health. These services are not only essential to the functioning of natural ecosystems but constitute an important resource for the sustainable management of agricultural systems.

Land Policy and Planning

Land policy aims to achieve certain objectives relating to the security and distribution of land rights, land use and land management, and access to land, including the forms of tenure under which it is held. A land-use policy is essentially an expression of the government's perception of the direction to be taken on major issues related to land use and the proposed allocation of the national land resources over a fixed period of time. It has a production and a conservation component. A sound national land-use policy is effectively part of the enabling environment and should cover all uses of land. To achieve the policy objective of sustainable production and conservation of natural resources, governments should pursue strategies which actively promote forms of land use which are both attractive to the people and sustainable in terms of their impacts on land resources. By developing the national land-use policies through a participatory, integrated and iterative process, there is a much greater likelihood of achieving this.

In 1992, Agenda 21 recognized the need for integrated planning and management of land resources, stating that it should be a decision making process that "facilitates the allocation of land to the uses that provide the greatest sustainable benefits" (Agenda 21, paragraph 10.5). Land use planning is even more crucial today, with growing pressures from climate change, urbanization and biofuels. Much high potential land is being lost to settlements; land which previously grew food crops is being planted with feedstocks for biofuels rather than food; climate change is limiting arable cropping in drylands, reducing productivity of rangelands and increasing sea levels, creating problems in coastal areas.

In 1997, the Commission for Sustainable Development (CSD), in a special session convened to assess progress towards sustainable development (Earth Summit + 5), reiterated the needs and recommended that, at the international level, priority should go to developing and disseminating a new approach to land resources conservation and development. It specified that this approach should create social, economic and legal conditions that encourage sustainable development, meet the information needs of governments and land users, and involve all relevant institutions. This is in accordance with FAO's responsibility as Task Manager for Chapter 10 of Agenda 21, which resulted from UNCED. During the recent sessions of CSD, a major attention was placed on Agricultural land, CSD-16 (2008) which focused on technical review and CSD -17 (2009) which focused on policy implications.

Every year 19.5 million hectares of agricultural land is converted to spreading urban centres and industrial developments, often forcing farmers onto shrinking and more marginal lands. The uncontrolled expansion of human settlements constitutes a challenge for sustainable land planning and management. Particularly the concentration of people and cities in coastal areas increases the demand for limited land resources. Coastal areas are among the most crowded regions in the world. Demands on land resources and the risks to sustainability are likely to intensify.

Population growth, economic development and urbanization are driving demands for food, water, energy and raw materials; the continued shift in human diet from cereal to animal products, requiring a higher input in land and water resources, and the recent move towards biofuels add to the demand for farm production, all of this with implications for land uses.

As for any form of agriculture, expanded biofuel production may threaten land and water resources as well as biodiversity, and appropriate policy measures are required to minimize possible negative effects. The impacts will vary across feedstocks and locations and will depend on cultivation practices and whether new land is converted for production of biofuel feedstocks or other crops are displaced by biofuels. Expanded demand for agricultural commodities will exacerbate pressures on the natural resource base, especially if the demand is met through area expansion. On the other hand, the use of perennial feedstocks on marginal or degraded lands may offer promise for sustainable biofuel production, but the economic viability of such options may be a constraint at least in the short run.

Land-use (or Land Resources) Planning

Land-use (or Land Resources) Planning is a systematic and iterative procedure carried out in order to create an enabling environment for sustainable development of land resources which meets people’s needs and demands. It assesses the physical, socio-economic, institutional and legal potentials and constraints with respect to an optimal and sustainable use of land resources, and empowers people to make decisions about how to allocate those resources.

These are matched through a multiple goal analysis and assessment of the intrinsic value of the various environmental and natural resources of the land unit. The result is an indication of a preferred future land use, or combination of uses. Through a negotiation process with all stakeholders, the outcome is improved, agreed decisions on the concrete allocation of land for specific uses (or non-uses) through legal and administrative measures, which will lead eventually to implementation of the plan.

Land-use planning at the national level

Land-use planning can be applied at three broad levels: national, district and local. These are not necessarily sequential but correspond to the levels of government at which decisions about land use are taken. Different kinds of decision are taken at each level, where the methods of planning and kinds of plan also differ. However, at each level there is need for a land-use strategy, policies that indicate planning priorities, projects that tackle these priorities and operational planning to get the work done. The greater the interaction between the three levels of planning, the better. The flow of information should be in both directions . At each successive level of planning, the degree of detail needed increases, and so too should the direct participation of the local people.

At the national level, planning is concerned with national goals and the allocation of resources. In many cases, national land-use planning does not involve the actual allocation of land for different uses, but the establishment of priorities for district-level projects.

A national land-use plan may cover:

• land-use policy: balancing the competing demands for land among different sectors of the economy food production, export crops, tourism, wildlife conservation, housing and public amenities, roads, industry;
• national development plans and budget: project identification and the allocation of resources for development;
• coordination of sectoral agencies involved in land use;

• legislation on such subjects as land tenure, forest clearance and water rights. National goals are complex while policy decisions, legislation and fiscal measures affect many people and wide areas. Decision-makers cannot possibly be specialists in all facets of land use, so the planners' responsibility is to present the relevant information in terms that the decision-makers can both comprehend and act on.

Planning at these different levels needs information at different scales and levels of generalization. Much of this information may be found on maps. The most suitable map scale for national planning is one by which the whole country fits on to one map sheet, which may call for a scale from 1:5 million to 1:1 million or larger. District planning requires details to be mapped at about 1:50000, although some information may be summarized at smaller scales, down to 1:250000. For local planning, maps of between 1:20000 and 1:5000 are best. Reproductions of air photographs can be used as base maps at the local level, since field workers and experience show that local people can recognize where they are on the photos.

Land-use planning at the district level

District level refers not necessarily to administrative districts but also to land areas that fall between national and local levels. Development projects are often at this level, where planning first comes to grips with the diversity of the land and its suitability to meet project goals. When planning is initiated nationally, national priorities have to be translated into local plans. Conflicts between national and local interests will have to be resolved.

The kinds of issues tackled at this stage include:

• the siting of developments such as new settlements, forest plantations and irrigation schemes;
• the need for improved infrastructure such as water supply, roads and marketing facilities;
• the development of management guidelines for improved kinds of land use on each type of land.

Land-use planning at the local level

The local planning unit may be the village, a group of villages or a small water catchment. At this level, it is easiest to fit the plan to the people, making use of local people's knowledge and contributions. Where planning is initiated at the district level, the programme of work to implement changes in land use or management has to be carried out locally. Alternatively, this may be the first level of planning, with its priorities drawn up by the local people. Local-level planning is about getting things done on particular areas of land - what shall be done where and when, and who will be responsible.

Bottom-up planning is initiated at the local level and involves active participation by the local community. The experience and local knowledge of the land users and local technical staff are mobilized to identify development priorities and to draw up and implement plans.

The advantages are: • local targets, local management and local benefits. People will be more enthusiastic about a plan seen as their own, and they will be more willing to participate in its implementation and monitoring; • more popular awareness of land-use problems and opportunities; • plans can pay close attention to local constraints, whether these are related to natural resources or socio-economic problems; • better information is fed upwards for higher levels of planning The disadvantages are that: • local interests are not always the same as regional or national interests; • difficulties occur in integrating local plans within a wider framework; • limited technical knowledge at the local level means technical agencies need to make a big investment in time and labour in widely scattered places; • local efforts may collapse because of a lack of higher-level support or even obstruction.

Local people are usually those best informed of local conditions, resources and problems. However, individuals can rarely negotiate on equal terms with the organized structures of government and the private sector with which they interact. The formation of local resource management groups (LRMGs) empowers stakeholders and brings them together to coordinate and address mutually important land resource issues. When there is local “ownership”, their creativity, initiative and enthusiasm will contribute greatly to the overall outcome. Ownership translates to responsibility on the part of stakeholders and in some cases voluntary contribution of resources

Role of Land Use in Urban and Regional Planning

Planning land use (Land Use) was instrumental in planning the city and was instrumental in influencing land use plan decisions:

1. Planning land use act as a coordinator / manager as a creator, and as that applying any form of land use planning regulations.

2. Land use planners encourage / support the community people together to achieve mutual benefits.

3. Land use planners must work effectively in view and respond to all interests, action and cooperation with the various "players".

4. Land use planners is not just a planner but also must act as a manager, preparing and implementing regulations and build bridges of cooperation between the actors involved to achieve common goals.

5. Planners have a unique position because it is responsible for the making of plans, regulations and the process of involving the community (participation) in the preparation of plans and policy evaluation.

Land use planners is not just a planner but also must act as a manager, preparing and implementing regulations and build bridges of cooperation between the actors involved to achieve common goals.

Planners have a unique position because it is responsible for the making of plans, regulations and the process of involving the community (participation) in the preparation of plans and policy evaluation.

a. Market-oriented actors (private sector, landowners, developers, builders, brokers, etc.) who seek to profit from changes in land use.

b. Government (central, provincial, local) that represent the interests of society as a whole.

c. Interest groups, which include representatives of special interests, such as environmental protection, environmental conservation, economic development, farmers, minorities, etc., who see through the eyes of the interests of their group opponents.

The actors (stakeholders) will compete both on the content (content) as well as regulatory procedures of land, planning and development decisions. Sometimes they work together and sometimes conflicting. Planners must understand the purpose and interest of each actor.

- In theory, the actors associated with the use of land are always in conflict (incompatibility) that continually cause endless pressure on land use planning.

- In practice, the conflict is regulated through a system of rules (laws) and the system of government

land use management

Stewardship land is a term used to refer to a branch of social policy that uses a variety of science to manage and regulate land use to run efficiently and ethically.

Many definitions are being developed to define the land use management, including the Canadian Institute of Planners defines that: "Planning [land use management] is a scientific approach, aesthetics, and regulation of land use, resources, facilities and services to ensure the efficiency of physical, economic and social development and health and welfare of urban and rural communities.

Ground water

Ground water is water contained in soil or rock layer below the soil surface. Ground water is one of the water resources are relatively limited and the damage can lead to high impact and recovery difficult.

In addition to river water and rain water, ground water also has a very important role especially in maintaining the balance and availability of raw material water for household purposes (domestic) or for industrial purposes. In some areas, dependence on clean water supplies and ground water has reached ± 70%.

Damage to water sources

Damage to water resources can not be separated from damage such as damage to surrounding land, vegetation and population pressures. These three issues are interrelated in affecting the availability of water resources.

This state of affairs of course need to be observed at an early stage, so as not to cause damage to groundwater in surrounding areas. Several factors are causing the problems are:

1. Rapid industrial growth in an area along with residential growth will lead to the tendency of increase in demand for ground water.
2. Use a variety of water so different in interests, purposes and how to obtain sources of water.
3. Need to change the attitude of most people who tend to be wasteful in water use traditional as well as neglecting the element of conservation.

Public Participation and Awareness Campaign in the Waste Water Management

The problem of environmental pollution has become a problem of governments, both national and local government. Even the Central Government considers that prevention of domestic waste water is not the responsibility of local governments, but also the responsibility of the relevant community.From year to year budget of the central and local government always rose steadily in the handling of this waste water, but without intervention and community participation in part to handle the distribution, processing and disposal of waste water in the cities, the pollution problem will not be resolved.

Increased community participation is necessary to remember the population of a city is very heterogeneous both in terms of ethnicity, religion, socio-cultural or socio-economics, so this tends to cause insecurity, especially in social discipline. For the role of society can be realized in a real, there should be efforts to raise motivation, ability, opportunity and explore and develop resources that exist in society, so people are willing to participate in the prevention of environmental pollution problems.

Concept of Regional Development in Development Planning

The concept of developing the area was developed from the needs of an area to improve the function and its role in managing the social, economic, cultural, education and welfare of the community. The influence of globalization, free markets and regionalization leads to changes and spatial dynamics, social, and economic inter-state, inter-regional (district), to rural districts.

Globalization is also marked by the revolution in information technology, transportation and management. The revolution has caused the boundary between urban and rural areas is unclear, the polarization of regional development, the formation of world cities (global cities), city system on an international scale, the formation of inter-state development area (transborder regions), as well as the formation of regional development corridors both local scale , national, regional and international.

In the Asia globalization has created a very significant development polarization in the form megaurban region that occurred in metropolitan cities along the east coast of Tokyo, Seoul, Shanghai, Taipei, Hong Kong, Guangzhou, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung Up . In the scale of convergence between countries occurred in the Bohai (China - Korea), Hong Kong-Guangzhou, and Sijori (Singapore-Johor-Riau). In Indonesia polarization centered along Sumetera (Medan, Palembang), and Java (Jakarta-Bandung-Semarang-Surabaya).

Mega-urban corridor is very influential on economic growth, especially the area surrounding district and surrounding villages that have economic relations and the market is quite strong.

But change is not matched by the provision of facilities and infrastructure are inadequate due to limited areas of government. Therefore, private parties and other institutions to participate in development.

Various impacts on the causes of economic globalization on local development simply as follows:

1. Changing the orientation of development which must be based on improving individual, group and community empowerment in the face of global competition, thus enabling people to survive (survive), to develop themselves and improve welfare.

2. Increasingly important role of non-governmental institutions such as, the private sector, communities, and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in implementation of development and financing

3. The increase in urbanization in the suburbs than in the big city itself. This is in line with the concept developed by Mc. Gee in the 1980s. Boundary between urban and rural areas become less clear due to economic growth, where urban activities have been mingled with the intensity of the movement of rural areas with investment, economic and population increases.

On the basis of the description above, the development of the region is an important part of the development of a region, especially in rural areas are extremely vulnerable and facing severe global-scale changes. This change, if not supported by a good regional planning taking into account the internal aspects, social and economic growth will result in progressively increasing the villages left behind.

Paradigm shift needs to be done in restructuring the areas categorized poor and weak to be able to improve competitiveness, production management and locally based appropriate technology that can affect other areas of reciprocity. In simple terms the concept of regional development needs to be done in rural planning to encourage local economic growth and strengthen communities in the bottom layer can affect the market for a sustainable manner.

Planning System in Indonesia

Planning System in Indonesia. In general, divided by 2, namely:

1. National Development Planning System (SPPN)

As stated in Law No. 25 of 2004 concerning National Development Planning System, development planning consists of:

1. Long-Term Development Plan (RPJP)

2. Medium Term Development Plan (Development Plan) and

3. Government Work Plan (RKP).

RPJP serve as guidelines in preparing the Development Plan for later elaborated in the RKP.

Under the national plan for all sectors, in this case institutions and ministries (K / L), prepare a Strategic Plan of the Ministry / Agency (Strategic Plan of K / L) are guided to the Development Plan and Work Plan of the Ministry / Agency (Renja K / L) are guided by RKP. This development plan and then serve as guidelines in preparing the State Budget (APBN).

The pattern of regional development planning exactly the same as the pattern of national development planning, where the National RPJP RPJP referred by the Regional, National Development Plan be considered by the Regional Development Plan and Regional RKP RKP harmonize with through consultation on development planning (musrenbang). This regional development plan to guide the preparation of the Regional Budget (APBD).

2. Spatial planning system (DSS)

Spatial planning system in Indonesia, referring to Law No. 26 of 2007 on Spatial Planning. In the Act known four hierarchical spatial planning, namely:

1. Spatial Planning (RTRW) National,

2. RTRW Island,

3. RTRW Province,

4. RTRW District.

National spatial planning became a reference in preparing RTRW Island. Guidelines for the preparation of spatial planning into spatial planning Island Province which is then guided further by the district / city. Compared with the previous system (Law No. 24 of 1992), the new spatial planning system opens opportunities to develop spatial plans that are general or specific in each hierarchy of planning.

Another innovation that was adopted in the new system is the application of Zone Settings (Zoning Regulations) as an instrument of implementation of the master plan. Instrument settings for this zone contains specific spatial rules binding for each region with a specific function within a planning area.

To strengthen the control of space utilization, the new system to impose sanctions for violations of spatial planning not only to the recipient subject to license the use of space but also to the giver permission space utilization.

NEED FOR A NEW APPROACH

In many countries, soils are being used with an increasing intensity to meet the needs of growing populations. Higher demands for food and increasing material expectations call for the optimization of the use of available natural resources and a more even distribution of wealth. The two major factors in this regard are land and people, the former because it is finite and the latter because their demands for land are increasing .

The relationships between land and population have an impact not only on food production and malnutrition, but also on competition for land, mismanagement and environmental degradation, mass migration and political conflicts. These issues are symptoms of a fundamental problem, ie, conflict resolution mechanisms are not coping with technologic advances and increasing population .

Over the past 20 years, FAO has prepared guidelines for land use planning [nd has gained experience in the identification of physical land constraints and remedial land interventions , the management of problem soils  and data collection/ retrieval for land evaluation and land use purposes. In the process, data collection and interpretation has advanced beyond the narrow bounds of soil science, focusing on the broader land requirements of specific crops and cropping systems.

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Some things that are very important in order to reform the city spatial planning

Some things that are very important in order to reform the city spatial planning, among others:
1. Changing of physical planning, such as is now done into social planning. With a change of mindset and the condition of society, expected public awareness of land use will increase. Advocacy planning is necessary in the interest of society, for the sake of accommodating the aspirations of the community. Advocacy Planning It feels more expensive. But much more expensive ineffective planning and development without planning. Advocacy planning can be applied also in discussion by the members of parliament. In this case the consultant provided input for consideration in setting the plan as a Regional Regulation (Perda) on Spatial City.
2. Changing the policy to be bottom up top down because top down is a source of corruption and collusion of the parties involved. Often projects top-down model of the center is less appropriate to the needs and conditions in the field. Aspiration of the public not on the traffic load in the assessment of spatial plans. The community representatives are invited to the seminar, such as: Head of Kelurahan / Village, Chairman of the local LKMD less than friendly to the macro planning, can also be regarded as representative of the government.
3. Comprehensive Planning is more precise than the sectoral planning. Comprehensive Planning as a macro for long-term planning for communities in developing countries (with the dynamics of society that is so big) it is less appropriate. Consequently those plans are not / less effective, with so many deviations that occur, whether intentional or not. Sectoral planning is the planning of the sectors that is really needed by the community in time of urgency.
4. Active participation in an integrated experts from various disciplines are needed in the process of urban spatial planning. City Planning Commission (as applied in the United States) would need to be applied also in Indonesia. This is based on that urban problems are very complex, not only the problems of space, but also involves aspects: economic, social, cultural, legal and so forth.
5. Changing the rules relating to land, land, and particularly in the urban space becomes more oriented to the interests and protection of small people. Institute for the tenant and the results need to be removed by BAL revived. The arrangement of land through the Land Consolidation, Land Sharing, and Land Readjustment needs to be improved.
6. No less important is that the Spatial Plan which has been determined to be a local regulation, it should be followed up with implementation, a reference in the preparation of programs of development activities, and not just become residents of the library Bappeda